Chapter 3: Post-Excavation Analysis

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This chapter covers the methods archaeologists use to identify, analyse and record the finds from excavation and fieldwalking/surface collection. In addition to many dedicated archaeological sites there are also good explanations of these techniques on science or commercial laboratory sites. Many of the latter have clear visual explanations which may help you get to grips with the more difficult ideas.

3.0 Processing finds

Processing finds in general is covered at:
http://www.spoilheap.co.uk/washgo.htm
The analysis of artefacts is outlined and illustrated at:
http://www.spoilheap.co.uk/finds.htm
http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/archy/exploration
Characterisation is explained at:
http://www.chem.tamu.edu/services/naa/index.html

3.1 Archaeometry

Archaeometry involves the application of scientific techniques to archaeological investigations. Most of these techniques were not designed specifically for archaeology but have been borrowed and adapted by archaeological scientists.

A good introduction is at:
http://archaeometry.missouri.edu/

3.2 Scientific analysis of artefacts

This section covers a range of scientific techniques which can be applied to a range of materials and introductions to methods. Some further examples are included on the material culture pages.

Brief introductions of a range of methods, each with a simple diagram are on the BM site:
http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/science/text/techniques/sr-tech-intro-t.html
The application of X ray fluorescence (xrf) to archaeology is detailed at:
http://omega.physics.uoi.gr/xrf/english/the_xrf_technique.htm (includes some useful diagrams)

X ray diffraction and a number of other techniques is explored at:
http://www.matter.org.uk/diffraction/x%2Dray/x_ray_diffraction.htm
Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) is explained at:
http://archaeometry.missouri.edu/services.html#naaover
Spectrometry:
http://www.spectroscopynow.com/coi/cda/home.cda?chId=0

Isotopic analysis is one of the more difficult methods for many students to understand particularly because such techniques are applied to both organic and inorganic remains.

A straightforward illustrated explanation of isotopes is at: http://education.jlab.org/glossary/isotope.html
And another which focuses on carbon is at:
http://ethomas.web.wesleyan.edu/ees123/carboniso.htm
http://www.uga.edu/~cais/
http://www.qub.ac.uk/eerc/people/academic_staff/wma/wm_a/siff.htm

3.3 Chemical analysis

Chemical analysis of archaeological finds encompasses a wide range of laboratory techniques to determine what materials are composed of or what remains on surviving surfaces. A general overview is at:
http://www.chem.tamu.edu/services/naa/index.html

Organic residue analysis explained with links to exemplar projects:
http://www.brad.ac.uk/staff/bstern/molecular/molarch.html
Research into the development and spread of dairying

3.4 Analysis of ceramics

Ceramics include clay pipes, figurines and roof tiles but most archaeological analysis has focused on pottery.

The history of pottery and information on manufacturing and analysis:
http://www.potweb.org/
http://www.spoilheap.co.uk/medpot.htm

Ceramic petrology. All you might want to know is at:
http://www.postex.demon.co.uk/petrology.htm

3.5 Analysis of lithics

Stone tools are the oldest surviving artefacts. Their study is crucial to our understanding of prehistory. Useful explanations and material on lithics are at:
http://wings.buffalo.edu/anthropology/Lithics/index2.html
http://www.utexas.edu/courses/denbow/labs/lithic2.htm
http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/archy/lithictech
http://www.flintman.co.uk/
http://www.postex.demon.co.uk/petrology.htm

An excellent site on lithics and experimentation is at:
http://www.hf.uio.no/iakh/forskning/sarc/english/study/experimental_archaeology

Petrology is a technique borrowed from geology which uses knowledge of the different chemical make-up of rocks in different places to determine original sources. A project which illustrates this particularly well is a British database of ores and minerals at:
http://www.smenet.org/opaque-ore/

An explanation of microwear studies is at:
http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/archsci/microwear/

An overview of Palaeolithic lithic assemblages is at:
http://www.hf.uio.no/iakh/forskning/sarc/iakh/lithic/sarc.html

An Austrian project examining lithics and soils with useful illustrations is at:
http://www.quartaer.info/Berichte

3.6 Analysis of metals

Most of the focus of archaeological scientific investigations of metal artefacts has been either to determine their composition (and possibly their origin) or to understand how they were manufactured. Some aspects of the latter are covered in the section on interpretation and experiment.

Metallurgy:
http://hist-met.org/
Metallurgy projects:
http://users.ox.ac.uk/~salter/
Bronze Age metalworking:
http://www.templeresearch.eclipse.co.uk/bronze/intro.htm

3.7 Analysis of organic remains: animals

A good site to start with is:
http://www.shef.ac.uk/archaeology/research/zooarchaeology

A long and detailed pdf article is:
http://assets.cambridge.org/052148/0698/sample/0521480698web.pdf

Ancient biomolecule research:
http://evolve.zoo.ox.ac.uk/

3.8 Human remains

There is a huge number of sites dealing with the analysis of human remains. Often they are combined with discussions of excavation. A good introduction can be found at the following:
http://www.spoilheap.co.uk/hsr.htm
http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/skeletal/menudir.htm
http://www.barc.brad.ac.uk/
DNA is explained at:
http://www.dnaheritage.com/masterclass2.asp

Case studies include the following:
Towton (England) http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/archsci/depart/resgrp/archpros/Towton_Landscape/

Preserved human bodies:
Inca (Peru) http://www.nationalgeographic.com/mummy
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/peru//index.html
Khok Phanom Di (Thailand) http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/icemummies/remains.html
Bog bodies (Denmark) http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/bog/index.html

Forensic archaeology does include the study of many materials, but a major focus is on human remains.
http://archaeology.about.com/od/forensic/
Iceman stomach (Italy) http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/icemummies/iceman.html
A webquest on Oetzi the iceman is at:
http://www.rdsc.vic.edu.au/oetzi/oetzi.htm
His murder is investigated at:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/iceman.shtml
Amesbury Archer http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/archaeology/excavations_techniques

Among the newer analytical methods applied to human remains, genetic research using recovered DNA and palaeodietary research into the composition of teeth, bones and hair have had considerable impact.

The genetic origins of the British are discussed at:
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/tcga/tcgapdf/capelli-CB-03.pdf

Human diets including isotope analysis are explored at:
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/ahob/AHOBI/isotopes.htm

3.9 Analysis of organic remains: plants

A site devoted to organic remains, particularly plants is:
http://www.scirpus.ca/dung/dung.shtml

Organic residue analysis is covered at:
http://www.bradford.ac.uk/archenvi/research/molecular/molarch.php

An excellent Powerpoint on organic residue analysis is at:
http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/ogu/content/rpe_inaugral_lecture.pdf

English Heritage produce a number of useful guides including one on environmental sampling:
http://www.qub.ac.uk/arcpal/downloads/cfa_environmental.pdf

A case study from Mesolithic Denmark is at:
http://home3.inet.tele.dk/evakoch/veg-uk.htm

Superb introductions to palynology (pollen analysis) are at:
http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/
http://www.utexas.edu/courses/denbow/labs/palynology.htm
http://www.chrono.qub.ac.uk/pollen/pc-intro.html

Peatlands and their importance for archaeology are at:
http://www.peatlandsni.gov.uk/archaeology/timeline.htm

A study focussing on phytoliths is at
http://www.phytolith.net/Amud.html