For the Student
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CHAPTER 3 : Excavation
3.1. THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXCAVATION TECHNIQUES
3.2. THE INTERPRETATION OF STRATIFICATION
3.5. RECORDS, ARCHIVES AND PUBLICATION
Some background sites:
- Current Archaeology Lots of illustrated reports on British excavation projects from this popular magazine (NB: its website is undergoing reconstruction in the late 2007)
- Archaeology Worldwide illustrated reports from the leading US magazine
- Journal of Field Archaeology Online abstracts of excavation and fieldwork reports published in an academic periodical (Boston University)
- Fieldwork opportunities Directory of fieldwork opportunities in archaeology, arranged geographically (hosted by Archaeological Institute of America).
- Time Team 'Here you can catch up on the latest news about Time Team, find out about past and present programmes and see more of the personalities who make Time Team tick, as well as unearthing some of the archaeology that brings Channel 4's award-winning series to life.'
3.1. THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXCAVATION TECHNIQUES
3.1.1. The concept of stratification
3.1.2. General Pitt Rivers (1827-1900)
3.1.3. Developments in the twentieth century
3.1.4. Mortimer Wheeler (1890-1976)
3.1.5. From keyhole trenches to open area excavation
3.1.6 The future of excavation
3.1. THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXCAVATION TECHNIQUES
Before 1900, few sites were explored by removing distinct layers and recording objects found together in them. The exceptions were mainly investigations of caves with early prehistoric occupation by excavators with a background in geology who were familiar with the concept of superimposed layers (strata) containing distinctive fossils. Finding artefacts made by humans together with bones of extinct animals was vital for proving the depth of prehistoric time. Historians and art-historians were more interested in finding inscriptions, documents or works of art; these could be recovered without paying attention to the contexts in which they were found.
- Great Excavations 'The Channel 4 series Great Excavations told the story of the fascinating and often eccentric science of archaeology, from its beginnings in the 18th century to the present. It is a tale of chance finds and clever deduction, of private enterprise and national plunder, of romantic adventures and sheer cunning, of the hunt for mysterious ancient civilisations and the desire for invaluable objects.' (written and presented by John Romer)
- Victorian Excavation Techniques Silchester Roman Town - The Insula IX Town Life Project: Excavations of 1893 (University of Reading)
- The Homepage of Robert Henry Forster 'There can't be many Edwardian archaeologists who have their own home page, but here's one who does: R.H. Forster. Who he? Co-director of the excavations at Corbridge between 1907 and 1914, author of various learned papers, treasurer and vice-president of the British Archaeological Association, oarsman, poet, and writer of historical romances (all of which are long forgotten, although well received in their day).' (Mike Bishop)
3.1.1. The concept of stratification
Modern excavators study the stratification of a site to guide the recording of individual deposits (with their associated finds) and to place them correctly in the overall sequence.
- William Smith (1769-1839) 'Smith was not the first to make geologic maps, but he was the first to use fossils as a tool for mapping rocks by their stratigraphic order, and not necessarily by their composition.' Origins in geology of this fundamental concept, which could also be applied to archaeological sites and their finds. (University Of California Museum of Paleontology)
3.1.2. Pitt Rivers (1827-1900)
The progress made in the late nineteenth century is exemplified by Augustus Henry Lane Fox (later known as Pitt Rivers). He had already played an important part in the development of the typological study of artefacts, and conducted fieldwork and surveys in England and Ireland; excavation only became Pitt Rivers' major activity after he inherited a large tract of Wessex, one of the richest archaeological areas in England.
- Augustus Pitt Rivers Brief biography from BBC History
- The work of Pitt Rivers 'While other archaeologists were digging on rich sites such as Silchester and Wroxeter, Pitt Rivers gave his attention to the rural sites of prehistoric and Roman Cranborne Chase.' Informative page produced by Salisbury Museum, including photographs of excavations and finds
3.1.3. Developments in the twentieth century
Three indispensable elements of excavation emerged by the beginning of the twentieth century: horizontal observations were combined with accurate recording; vertical sequences were increasingly important; systematic attention to all classes of finds was the newest element.
3.1.4. Mortimer Wheeler (1890-1976)
Mortimer Wheeler, whose outlook and methods seem (like those of Pitt Rivers) to reflect his military background, combined horizontal and vertical excavation with stratigraphic recording of finds in his work from the 1920s.
- Sir (Robert Eric) Mortimer Wheeler 'Archaeologist and broadcaster'; photographs of this dashing figure, one of the first archaeologists to capture the media, from the National Portrait Gallery
- Maiden Castle excavations Sample PDF chapter of Steve Roskam's excellent book Excavation (Cambridge University Press, 2001): go to page 17 of file for photographs of Wheeler's techniques, including the box-system which he popularised
- Harappa 1946-47 A typical Wheeler trench with horizontal plan and vertical sections - scrupulously cleaned for photography (Sudeshna Guha, Cambridge University)
3.1.5. From keyhole trenches to open area excavation
Keyhole excavation was carried out extensively in Roman military archaeology by Ian Richmond, who produced overall plans of many forts and fortresses in northern Britain by the judicious excavation of small narrow trenches, carefully placed to check critical details of the fairly predictable layout of their internal structures.
- Professor Sir Ian Richmond An illustration of Richmond excavating a very small trench is included in this account (from THE ARCHAEOLOGISTS OF LANCASTER by David Shotter)
- Test Pitting 'Test-pitting is often used along side other forms of archaeological investigation to test for the presence of sub-surface archaeology. This could be in conjunction with aerial photography ... or as part of a larger excavation to record geomorphological soil and sediment profiles or to test areas beyond the confines of the excavation trenches.' Current 'keyhole' practice described and illustrated by Archaeological Research Services Ltd
- Large-Scale Open Area Excavation 'Typically a 'strip and record' strategy is employed whereby all archaeological features are mapped and photographed but then features are excavated selectively to provide targetted information that will answer the research questions relating to the site.' (Archaeological Research Services Ltd)
- Ling Hall Quarry, Church Lawford 1989-2005: Excavation of a prehistoric and Romano-British landscape Open area rescue excavation in action in Warwickshire: 'The plateau is significant for the survival of an extensive later prehistoric landscape known from cropmarks recorded during aerial survey. The quarry site was evaluated by trial trenching in 1989 and since 1991 the Field Archaeology Projects Group have monitored the removal of topsoil in advance of quarrying and excavated the features exposed.' (Field Archaeology Projects Group, Warwickshire Museum Field Services). Lots of excellent illustrations of this approach to excavation.
3.2. THE INTERPRETATION OF STRATIFICATION
3.2.1. Dating stratification
3.2. THE INTERPRETATION OF STRATIFICATION
The principle of superposition holds that layers of soil (or any other material) are deposited in chronological order, with the oldest at the bottom. Stratigraphic excavation is based on this principle, whether it involves a long sequence of deposits or a unique relationship between two intersecting ditches.
- The Harris Matrix '...was invented in 1973 by Dr. Edward C. Harris and for the first time provided archaeologists with a means to view stratigraphic sequences in diagram form. It has since been adopted by professionals worldwide. This site, supported by Dr. Harris and the Bermuda Maritime Museum, is intended to provide a forum for information and discussion of the Matrix in archaeological studies..'
- Peñaflor: The Matrix and Key Features Part of an-line excavation report on a Roman town site in Spain (Simon Keay, John Creighton and José Remesal Rodr?guez)
- PROLEG DPC Company whose products include Proleg MatrixBuilder'a unique software for archaeologists that automatically generates a fully customizable and error-free Harris Matrix taking into account all context chronologies. Contexts are positioned taking into account stratigraphy and chronologies...
In practice stratification rarely consists of horizontal layers, but is complicated by disturbances by human and natural activity. Independent evidence must be found to provide date ranges for a stratigraphic sequence.
3.3. PLANNING AN EXCAVATION
3.3.1. Excavation, ethics and theory
3.3.2. Selection of a site
:: Types of archaeological investigation
3.3.3. PPG 16
3.3.4. Background research
:: Finds and environmental work
3.3. PLANNING AN EXCAVATION
- English Heritage: ' New project management guidance for historic environment research is in preparation and will form the specification for historic environment research projects funded or undertaken by English Heritage. It will consist of:
- A generic statement of the principles of project management to be applied to historic environment research [PDF]
This will operate alongside MAP2 - Management of Archaeological Projects for EH funded projects until the production in 2006 of:-
- fuller project management guidance, which will be supported by more detailed information on the practical application of the guidance to the various specialist areas within historic environment research (e.g. maritime archaeology or building analysis and recording).'
- See also Chapter 2.2 FIELD ARCHAEOLOGY
3.3.1. Excavation, ethics and theory
Excavation can destroy a site as thoroughly as ploughing, building construction or natural erosion; the difference is that it is initiated by people who are conscious of the significance of ancient sites. This brings responsibilities that are a combination of common sense and ethics, but have been expressed formally in the Code of Conduct of the Institute of Field Archaeologists (IFA), an organisation of archaeologists in Britain that attempts to set standards for professional work.
- Codes, Guidelines & Standards Institute of Field Archaeologists' documents available as PDF files
- Principles of Archaeological Ethics 'The archaeological record, that is, in situ archaeological material and sites, archaeological collections, records and reports, is irreplaceable. It is the responsibility of all archaeologists to work for the long-term conservation and protection of the archaeological record by practicing and promoting stewardship of the archaeological record...' (Society for American Archaeology)
One archaeological site might attract attention because it is particularly well preserved, another because it is threatened by destruction; are these good reasons for excavation? The answer depends upon whether you think that a picture of the past can be built up from a gradual accumulation of independent observations, or whether individuals or organisations should design coherent research strategies.
- Ffynonwen Dig Diary 2006 'In the summer of 2005, Troedyrhiw was selected for excavation on the basis that it was a good example of a rectangular enclosure and one where the geophysical survey demonstrated that below ground archaeology is likely to survive. Artefacts are not common on prehistoric sites in west Wales. However, the most likely location for finds is in the ditch ends close to the entrance. Therefore this area was chosen for excavation.' (Cambria Archaeology)
- Where do urban archaeologists dig? 'Before archaeologists begin to investigate an urban site, they carefully study the documentary record. Of particular importance are maps showing how the project area changed over time. Historical research also includes deeds, census records, directories, and contemporary accounts that describe conditions in earlier versions of the city.' (The Five Points Site, New York)
----- Types of archaeological investigation
The IFA produced updated Standard and guidance statements in 1999 which defined a series of levels of investigation that an archaeological site might receive, from entirely non-intrusive examination to full-scale excavation.
- Types of Archaeological Work '...the main elements of archaeological work as they relate to the planning process are described. These elements, normally phase 2 of the MAP2 management model ... consist of both desk-based and field-based projects set in a context of the underlying principles of both preservation by record and contract archaeology.' (from Lincolnshire Archaeological Handbook)
3.3.3. Developer funded archaeology
PPG 16 probably means little to anyone who is not engaged in professional archaeology in Britain. However, Planning Policy Guidance 16: archaeology and planning (1990) has transformed the way in which most excavation is conducted in England by embedding it in the wider processes of planning and development.
- Planning Policy Guidance 16 '(PPG16) sets out the Secretary of State's policy on archaeological remains on land, and how they should be preserved or recorded both in an urban setting and in the countryside.' (Communities and Local Government). A PDF file of the document is available to read or download
Excavation should not begin without prior assessment and evaluation of the kind outlined in the IFA's definitions. The more data that can be collected in advance, the easier it will be to draw up detailed plans for the excavation - and to respond to new information that is revealed as it proceeds.
- Proposal for Archaeological Excavation 'This proposal is for further archaeological excavations at Oropuriri, archaeological sites P19/261 and P19/262. The sites are located on the Bell Block bypass, the proposed route of a new section of State Highway 3 near New Plymouth. Parts of these sites will be required for the construction of the road.' Clear PDF document setting out the background work involved in proposing a rescue excavation in New Zealand (Archaeology North/University of Auckland).
----- Staff and equipment
The number and nature of staff involved in an excavation are directly related to its size, resources and complexity; on small sites, many tasks may be performed by an individual site officer. Some basic tasks normally require specialist staff, and recording is the most important.
- Catalhoyuk: 2005 Field Team This list gives a good idea of the range of skills required in the course of a major excavation
----- Finds and environmental work
An excavation that produces a large quantity of finds will also require an assistant to manage their cataloguing and storage, with sufficient helpers to clean and sort pottery and other materials
- Finds processing 'Work is not complete until the evidence has been analysed, the specialist reports are complete, the finds and records have been properly stored and the site report has been published. The work done after a dig is finished is essential for understanding and interpreting the evidence.' (Museum of London)
- Environmental archaeology and archaeological evaluations 'The aim of the environmental archaeology component of an archaeological evaluation is to determine the potential importance of soils and sediments, and of biological remains, to the archaeological, historical and ecological interpretation of a site.' (Association for Environmental Archaeology)
3.4. EXCAVATION STRATEGY
3.4.1. Forms of sites
3.4.2. Excavation in special conditions
3.4.3. Contexts and features
3.4.4. Structures and materials
3.4.5. Standing buildings
3.4.6 Reconstruction
3.4. EXCAVATION STRATEGY
During an excavation individuals using hand-tools such as trowels make continuous observations and judgements about the texture, colour, and significance of soils, deposits or features. In addition, they must be able to recognise all kinds of finds, from solid stone or pottery and fragile corroded metal to the faint discolourations left by organic materials that have decayed away completely.
- Site strategy 'The excavation strategy depends on what type of site is being excavated and what kind of questions the archaeologists hope to answer. It also has to take into account the type of development that is taking place. The strategy can include helping developers to avoid or conserve archaeological remains instead of excavating them.' (from Museum of London educational site Digging up the Romans)
- Catalhoyuk: excavations of a neolithic Anatolian hoyuk ' Since 1993 an international team of archaeologists, led by Ian Hodder, has been carrying out new excavations and research, in order to shed more light on the people that inhabited the site.'
- The Five Points Site "Archaeologists and historians rediscover a famous nineteenth-century New York neighborhood. ... Archaeological investigations on the site of the new Foley Square Courthouse at 500 Pearl Street were undertaken by the United States General Services Administration (GSA) in fulfilment of its obligations under the National Historic Preservation Act and related Federal legislation." (Text and Inspiration: Rebecca Yamin, Ph.D.)
Different forms of sites (temporary or permanent, domestic or ritual etc.) have different implications for excavators, while environmental conditions (such as wetness or aridity) affect the nature of deposits and the survival of artefacts and structures.
Early prehistoric settlements associated with hunter-gatherers were predominantly temporary, and frequently made use of natural rock-shelters or caves. Excavation is likely to focus upon identifying activity areas, and establishing whether occupation was regular or intermittent.
- Boxgrove, Sussex 'Boxgrove is a Middle Pleistocene site in West Sussex, England. Since the early 1980's a number of localities within the gravel quarries at Boxgrove have provided detailed insights into the life and palaeoecology of the earliest colonisers of Northern Europe.' (University College London and English Heritage)
- The cave of Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc Superb guide to a cave with prehistoric occupation and paintings in France
A sedentary lifestyle is a very recent innovation in human history. It began at different times in different parts of the world, normally when farming came to replace hunting and gathering as the predominant means of subsistence. Sites where people actually lived, as opposed to carrying out purely ritual or industrial activities, remain the most common focus for archaeological excavation.
- Amarna Project The ancient Egyptian city of Tell el-Amarna (or simply Amarna) was the short-lived capital built by the 'heretic' Pharaoh Akhenaten and abandoned shortly after his death (c. 1332 BCE). ... As well as this historic interest Amarna remains the largest readily accessible living-site from ancient Egypt. ... There is no other site like it.' (Amarna Project/University of Cambridge)
- Old Scatness Broch...the massive settlement mound at Scatness...over five metres high and 80 metres in diameter, has been inhabited for 3,000 years, and has at its centre an Iron Age tower, or broch.' (Shetland Amenity Trust, Shetland Islands Council, the University of Bradford)
----- Cemeteries
In many societies graves were placed together in cemeteries, sometimes attached to temples or churches, but the dead were not always separated from the living, and burials may be found in or around houses.
- Excavation of a priory and medieval cemetery at Romilly-sur-Andelle 'The archaeological excavation provides a unique opportunity to discover the remains of the medieval priory of Saint-Crespin and to study the organization of a cemetery dating to the Early Middle Ages.' Informative gallery of excavation photographs (Institut National de Recherches Archeologiques Preventives)
- Harrell prehistoric cemetery, Texas On-line presentation of a 1930s excavation (Texas Beyond History)
3.4.2. Excavation in special conditions
Temperate zones of the world, including Europe and large parts of the North and South American continents, have been characterised by intensive arable farming for many centuries - with predictably destructive effects on archaeological sites.
The growth of ecological perspectives drew attention to the potential of investigating waterlogged sites, and led to the 'classic' investigation of a Mesolithic site at Star Carr in Yorkshire. This tradition continues in Britain, and includes major work prompted by 'rescue' archaeology, such as the Somerset Levels project; wetland archaeology also thrives in many other parts of the world.
- New Excavations at Star Carr 'A major archaeological joint venture between the Universities of York, Manchester, UCL and Cambridge is devoted to revealing new secrets about this intriguing site and to excavate the abundant remains before they are destroyed by further field-drainage.'
- People of the Lakes 'The shores of the lakes at Chalain and Clairvaux have the highest densities of Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements in Western Europe. Preserved below water level, these remains of ancient villages cannot be uncovered and left in the open air - in just a few days they would completely decay..' (Ministere de la culture et de la communication, France)
----- Underwater archaeology
The guiding principles and methodology of underwater archaeology are identical to those that should be employed on dry sites. However, the additional complexity of the tasks of discovery, excavation, recording and conservation forces directors of underwater projects to take a much more stringent approach to resources and safety.
- Archeologie sous les mers Informative guide to underwater archaeology around France (with English version; Ministere de la culture et de la communication)
- Underwater Archaeology at Florida State University 'Faculty and students in the Department of Anthropology at Florida State University conduct research in maritime environments. Graduate and undergraduate students have had the opportunity to receive specialized training and research opportunities in maritime archaeology (including ships, the maritime environment, and harbors).'
- International Centre for Maritime Archaeology ...one of the leading education and research Institutions for Maritime Archaeology in the world. Primary research areas are comparative studies of maritime cultures and deepwater archaeology. Field projects are conducted in Norway and in several areas around the world.' (Norwegian University of Science and Technology)
- The MONITOR National Marine Sanctuary Early American ironclad warship wreck in a conservation park off the coast of North Carolina
- The Mary Rose Virtual Maritime Museum Henry VIII's warship, excavated underwater and then raised
Many positive features are created during the course of managing a landscape, such as cultivation ridges in fields, field-walls, hedges and other boundaries, or piles of stones heaped up at the edge of cultivated land. Some ancient landscapes contained dozens of substantial mounds and banks created for burials, ceremonial processions, and other ritual or social purposes.
- SECTION 13 : RINGFORTS 'Ringforts are circular areas, measuring c.24-60m in diameter, usually enclosed with one or more earthen bank enclosures, often topped with a timber palisade.' Excellent illustrations, including section cut through an enclosing bank of one of these characteristic Irish sites (Heritage Council)
- Excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad 'At present, large-scale excavations are carried out at Tell Sabi Abyad with its extensive late Neolithic occupation on the slopes and the Assyrian fortress on the top of the mound.' Good illustrations of the excavation of a deeply stratified 'tel' site in Syria (Netherlands National Museum of Antiquities/University of Leiden)
The normal excavation method is to empty a pit in such a way that its section may be recorded, ideally on more than one axis, in order to study the way in which it was filled and to recover artefacts and environmental samples that will help elucidate its function as well as providing dating evidence.
- Pits and Hearth Photographs of features at Silchester Roman town re-excavated as part of the Insula IX Town Life Project (University of Reading)
- Archaeological Recording on the Barford Bypass 2005-2007 Includes photographs of sections of pits and ditches (Warwickshire Museum Field Archaeology Projects Group)
- BLOODGATE HILL, SOUTH CREAKE IRON AGE HILLFORT Surface surveys (Wa, excavation photographs, and reconstruction drawing (Norfolk Archaeological Trust)
----- Surfaces and working areas
What was important to the digger of the pit or ditch was the size and shape of its empty internal space, whether designed to provide defence, contain water or accommodate rubbish. It might have remained open for a considerable length of time, and this may possibly be detected by weathering of the sides, but the surface has no physical existence, since it is simply the interface between the ground and the filling of the feature
- 25 Years of the Harris Matrix 'Without the assigning of value to interfaces, stratigraphic sequences cannot be properly constructed in the Matrix system. It is now my view that the notion of the interface has not been taken far enough, and that a value by numbering and recording should be assigned to the interfaces (surfaces) of strata, since such working surfaces often 'outlived' the deposition event by many decades.' (Edward Harris)'
- WHITEHALL FARM ROMAN VILLA 'The courtyard surface had been covered with cobbles and graduated layers of gravel presumably to provide the timber hall with an external working area.' (community archaeology project based at Nether Heyford in Northamptonshire, UK)
3.4.4. Structures and materials
Information gained from the excavation or analysis of buildings is of enormous value; background research should include awareness of the great variety of techniques and materials used for constructing buildings so that important traces are not overlooked through ignorance.
The use of stone for construction does not necessarily imply higher technical ability, wealth or social status than other building materials. Stone was used in areas where it was conveniently available; when it was not, timber, mud-brick or other building materials were employed.
- Casselden Place Archaeology project Excellent photographs illustrating foundations of 19th-20th-century buildings in a large rescue excavation in Melbourne, Australia (Heritage Council of Victoria)
Unless extremely wet or dry conditions have remained constant over a long period wood decays completely, leaving differences in the colour and texture of soil that are only detectable by careful excavation
- Blue Bridge Round House 'In England and Wales round houses are typically constructed from wood. Because wood decomposes easily the structure of the round house is interpreted from the post holes that once held the timber frame.' Excavated Bronze-Age structure and reconstruction drawing (Milton Keynes Heritage Association)
- Archeology at Andersonville Archeological investigation of Andersonville Civil War Prison, Georgia; instructive photographs and plans of excavation of a timber palisade (Southeast Archeological Center)
- Timber-framed houses The history and construction of Medieval timber-framed houses in England and Wales from 1200 to 1900, including developments like the chimney, window glass and more.
----- Other building materials
One of the most important ancient building materials was clay, whether applied directly to wooden walls (wattle and daub), shaped into blocks and dried in the sun (mud-brick), or fired in kilns to make non-perishable bricks or tiles.
- Tell el-Amarna Lots of illustrations of excavated mud-brick buildings in Egypt, along with photographs of modern brick-making (Egypt Exploration Society)
- Virtual Kahun (Egypt). A Joint Project between The Manchester Museum and The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, UCL. Supported by the DCMS/MLA Designation Challenge Fund.
The idea of preserving representative examples of old buildings only became enshrined in planning policy in the late twentieth century, perhaps because urban renewal had damaged historic cities on an unprecedented scale - frequently removing old buildings that had survived two World Wars in Europe.
- Historic Buildings Investigation & Recording We undertake all types of historic building assessment and recording, whether before or after planning application, providing building surveys at all recognised English Heritage (previously RCHME) levels: from assessments for planning applications and impact assessments, to high level planning condition requirements.? (L-P : Archaeology)
An excellent way of increasing understanding of an excavated building is to create a scale model or reconstruction drawing. Some information may be particularly helpful, notably the size and strength of foundations, pillars and walls.
- Roman Open-Air Museum of Hechingen-Stein, Germany Excavated and reconstructed Roman Villa in Hechingen, a 'virtual tour' through the site
- Timber building reconstruction 'By the summer of 1999, three buildings had been completed and were in use as part of the visitor attractions and educational resources of Bede's World. Each is a full-scale realisation of a building whose remains have been excavated and published in authoritative archaeological journals. This section of the web site documents the three buildings.' (Bede's World, Jarrow)
- 3-D Representation of a Hohokam Pithouse "...rendered images were created with AutoCAD version 12 and 3D Studio... The scenes depict a brief overview of the construction of a pithouse, the main dwelling of the Hohokam, known as the "Ancient Ones" to the modern day O'Odham Indian Culture of Southern Arizona." (Jean L. Johnson)
3.5. RECORDS, ARCHIVES AND PUBLICATION
3.5.1. Recording
3.5.2. Post modernism and excavation: reflexive fieldwork
3.5.3 Publication and archiving the results
3.5. RECORDS, ARCHIVES AND PUBLICATION
An increasing demand for objectivity and accuracy, combined with the complexity of (for example) a large open-area multiperiod urban excavation, led to the design of pre-printed forms for recording each context. These allow the director to impose standardised recording methods in advance of excavation that remove control from supervisors, who no longer record observations in a rather personal way, but simply manage the procedures necessary for filling in forms.
- Basic Recording Procedures 'Careful, consistent, and accurate recording is necessary in any archaeological undertaking; it is essential for archaeological interpretation and it is one of the basic tasks of site conservation and preservation.' A set of instructions for the system in use at the Ohio State University Excavations at Isthmia, Greece
- Laser Scanning Excavations This site allows you to rediscover Stonehenge using laser scanning technology.
- Hand-held data collection and GPS logging A review of some equipment from Internet Archaeology, with a helpful glossary of terms (Nick Ryan, Jason Pascoe, David Morse: University of Kent at Canterbury). Although these devices are primarily used in survey and fieldwork, increasing accuracy may lead to uses on excavations.
- Digital Archives from Excavation and Fieldwork - second edition of Guide to Good Practice: 'Modern archaeological fieldwork projects create huge amounts of digital information. Whether it is the on-site recording of the archaeology, specialist databases created during post-excavation or publication standard interpretative maps and plans, it is possible to create digital information at every stage from initial desk-based assessment to publication. Within the discipline there has been an increasing awareness that this vulnerable data is as much a part of the primary site archive as the artefacts and paper records that have traditionally found their way into museum stores. Consequently the primary aim of this Digital Archiving Guide to Good Practice is to provide information on the best way to create and document digital material produced in the course of excavation and fieldwork, and to deposit it safely in a digital archive facility for future use.' ( Archaeological Data Service)
- Bar Code Location Recording System Ancient Monuments Laboratory system for tracking excavated objects through conservation or scientific analysis
3.5.2. Post modernism and excavation: reflexive fieldwork
3.5.3 Publication and archiving the results
Publication
As the amount of information produced by excavation has increased, so too have expectations about its quality and detail. Now that single-context recording is well established and computerised databases are in common use, it is possible for an excavation to be recorded almost entirely in digital form.
- Post-excavation processing 'Work is not complete until the evidence has been analysed, the specialist reports are complete, the finds and records have been properly stored and the site report has been published. The work done after a dig is finished is essential for understanding and interpreting the evidence.' (Museum of London)
- Peñaflor: The Archaeology of a Hispano-Roman Town in Baetica On-line excavation report on a site in Spain (Simon Keay, John Creighton and Jose Remesal Rodr?guez)
- Concangis
is a Web site by Mike Bishop based upon the 1990-1 Church Chare
excavations on part of a barrack block in the Roman fort at
Chester-le-Street, Co. Durham. It comprises four main elements:
* A popular account, originally published as a small booklet
* The academic report, originally published in Archaeologia Aeliana
* The daybook kept by the director
* The director's own photographs of proceedings
The text of the first three elements remains 'as is' (the fourth is newly-written), but it has all now been cross-referenced by hyperlinks, so that whilst it is possible to navigate through the various main elements in a linear fashion, you can also dodge around, should the fancy take you. You can, for example, click on a pot drawing to take you to its textual description - where you may find that its context number is in turn linked to the description of that context in the structural report.' - The Danebury Excavations Digital Archive Danebury Hillfort, Nether Wallop, Hampshire, England (SU 323377) was excavated between the years of 1968 and 1989 by Professor Barry Cunliffe of the University of Oxford. Approximately 3 ha (57%) of the 5 ha enclosed within the ramparts was excavated revealing a very dense distribution of features. These were mainly pits (c. 2,300 excavated), postholes (c. 10,000), circular house structures (c. 73) and rectangular subsidiary structures (c. 500). An equally impressive assemblage of material culture was excavated including 158,000 sherds of pottery and 241,500 animal bones. The size of this dataset necessitated the use of computers and the Danebury Project was one of the first large-scale excavations to attempt computerisation in the early 1980s.'
- Archaeology Data Service '...supports research, learning and teaching with high quality and dependable digital resources. It does this by preserving digital data in the long term, and by promoting and disseminating a broad range of data in archaeology. The ADS promotes good practice in the use of digital data in archaeology, it provides technical advice to the research community, and supports the deployment of digital technologies.'